Abstract

Last meeting we setup the Raspberry Pi as a headless server. We discussed some of the commands needed to maintain the system.

Now we are going to discuss some of the background programs and configuration used by the operating system.

This will be a wide ranging talk about Linux on the Raspberry Pi.

What we are going to discuss

At the end of the talk in December we left off the following topics.

  • System Start-up tasks

  • Scheduled tasks

  • Web pages

  • Updating the software

  • Installing programs not in the repositories

  • Programming languages

  • Permissions

  • Text Editors

So tonight we are going to try to tackle these subjects.

System Start-up tasks

When a computer starts up it goes through a series of steps before it is ready to execute user’s commands.

Boot Sequence

Taken from The boot sequence

  1. Stage 1 boot is in the on-chip ROM. Loads Stage 2 in the L2 cache

  2. Stage 2 is bootcode.bin. Enables SDRAM and loads Stage 3

  3. Stage 3 is loader.bin. It knows about the .elf format and loads start.elf

  4. start.elf loads kernel.img. It then also reads config.txt, cmdline.txt and bcm2835.dtb If the dtb file exists, it is loaded at 0×100 & kernel @ 0×8000 If disable_commandline_tags is set it loads kernel @ 0×0 Otherwise it loads kernel @ 0×8000 and put ATAGS at 0×100

  5. kernel.img is then run on the ARM.

Everything is run on the GPU until kernel.img is loaded on the ARM.

The config.txt file is documented in Config.txt

Boot Sequence
Boot Sequence

You can consult a previous talk Raspberry Pi Boot Process for a comparison of the Linux boot process and that on the Raspberry Pi.

Kernel and systemd

Once the Linux kernel is loaded and starts loading the required modules, the system starts the first application, systemd.

Systemd is the program that will start the other daemons used by the system. This initialization program is part of the Linux kernel. It uses configuration files stored in /etc/systemd/system.

To list all the services running under systemd use the command:

systemctl | less

To see a list of all services and their status use the command:

systemctl list-unit-files 

Scheduled tasks

The Linux system contains a schedule program called cron. This daemon wakes up once per minute and checks a series of task lists looking for apps to run. The data is stored for both the system and the individual users.

The system entries are stored in the folders and files:

file: /etc/crontab
directory: /etc/cron.d:
directory: /etc/cron.daily:
directory: /etc/cron.hourly:
directory: /etc/cron.monthly:
directory: /etc/cron.weekly:

The user entries are stored in the user’s home directory under the name crontab.

The format of these files is: (Lines beginning with # are comments.)

# * * * * *  command to execute
# ┬ ┬ ┬ ┬ ┬
# │ │ │ │ │
# │ │ │ │ │
# │ │ │ │ └───── day of week (0 - 7) (0 to 6 are Sunday to Saturday, or use names; 7 is Sunday, the same as 0)
# │ │ │ └────────── month (1 - 12)
# │ │ └─────────────── day of month (1 - 31)
# │ └──────────────────── hour (0 - 23)
# └───────────────────────── min (0 - 59)

To list the contents of your crontab use the command crontab -l. Or if you want to edit the contents use the command crontab -e.

Web pages

One useful addition to the Raspberry Pi is a we server. You can check if you have one installed by going to

http://localhost   or http://<ip address>

You should see a page like

Apache2 Debian Default Page

If you do not get a web page you will need to install the Apache2 package using the command:

sudo apt install apache2

I find it useful to also install a web tool for scripting called php. You can use the following command to install it:

sudo apt install php

Once this is installed you should create a web page nano /var/www/html/phpinfo.php like this:

<?php 
phpinfo ();
?>

Now you can look at the new page with:

http://localhost/phpinfo.php   or http://<ip address>/phpinfo.php

To get some ideas about what you can use a web server for have a look at the talk Web interface for Raspberry Pi Apps

Switching to Root

When ever you use any Linux system you should be logged in as a regular user. This is security issue you do not damage or corrupt the system. But sometime you need to be the root user to perform an action. Typically you use the sudo application.

When you want to run a command as root, prefix the command with sudo. Here is an example

pi@raspberrypi:~ $ ls /etc/ssl/private
ls: cannot open directory '/etc/ssl/private': Permission denied
pi@raspberrypi:~ $ sudo ls /etc/ssl/private
ssl-cert-snakeoil.key

If you wanted to stay as root user for a while you can use the command sudo -i to switch to the root user.

Caution: only stay as root user when you are performing system tasks, like configuration or updating software. Otherwise you will be bypassing one of the best security features of Linux.

Updating the software

The command line tool for maintaining a Raspberry Pi is apt (Advanced Packaging Tool). It is normally only used by the root use for installing, removing, and updating the software.

When you want to make sure your package list is up to date you use the command:

apt update # as root user or sudo apt update as a normal user.

This will query the package repositories and download the current list of packages.

To update a system use the commands:

apt update
apt dist-upgrade

This is update the package repository lists, and then look for new versions of your current list of packages. When it finishes presenting you a list of packages to update it will ask you if you want to continue. A typical session will look something like this:

root@raspberrypi:~# apt dist-upgrade
Reading package lists... Done
Building dependency tree       
Reading state information... Done
Calculating upgrade... Done
The following packages will be upgraded:
  ffmpeg libarchive13 libav-tools libavcodec57 libavdevice57 libavfilter6
  libavformat57 libavresample3 libavutil55 libobrender32v5 libobt2v5
  libpam-systemd libpostproc54 libsdl1.2debian libssl1.0.2 libswresample2
  libswscale4 libsystemd0 libudev1 libvlc-bin libvlc5 libvlccore9 libzmq5
  lxappearance-obconf obconf openbox rpi-chromium-mods systemd systemd-sysv
  udev vlc vlc-bin vlc-data vlc-l10n vlc-plugin-base vlc-plugin-notify
  vlc-plugin-qt vlc-plugin-samba vlc-plugin-skins2 vlc-plugin-video-output
  vlc-plugin-video-splitter vlc-plugin-visualization
42 upgraded, 0 newly installed, 0 to remove and 0 not upgraded.
Need to get 35.2 MB of archives.
After this operation, 462 kB disk space will be freed.
Do you want to continue? [Y/n]

Notice that it tells you how many packages will be upgraded, installed, removed, or not upgraded. Additionally it will tell you the disk usage needed. If you think this looks OK answer with y to continue.

You can search for packages with either apt or apt-cache. Apt is the newer version. Here is an example:

root@raspberrypi:~# apt search dwww
Sorting... Done
Full Text Search... Done
doc-base/stable 0.10.7 all
  utilities to manage online documentation

dwww/stable 1.13.3 armhf
  Read all on-line documentation with a WWW browser

epydoc-doc/stable 3.0.1+dfsg-14 all
  tool for documenting Python modules (documentation)

gri-html-doc/stable 2.12.23-10 all
  HTML manual for gri, a language for scientific graphics

synaptic/stable 0.84.2+rpi1 armhf
  Graphical package manager

Or using the older version of the program apt-cache.

root@raspberrypi:~# apt-cache search dwww
doc-base - utilities to manage online documentation
dwww - Read all on-line documentation with a WWW browser
epydoc-doc - tool for documenting Python modules (documentation)
gri-html-doc - HTML manual for gri, a language for scientific graphics
synaptic - Graphical package manager

As you can see the apt gives more information, but apt-cache works.

To install a program use the install option like so:

root@raspberrypi:~# apt install dwww
Reading package lists... Done
Building dependency tree       
Reading state information... Done
The following additional packages will be installed:
  dctrl-tools dlocate doc-base info2www libfile-ncopy-perl libmime-types-perl
  libuuid-perl libyaml-tiny-perl swish++
Suggested packages:
  debtags rarian-compat doc-debian dpkg-www libmojolicious-perl xpdf-utils
  antiword
The following NEW packages will be installed:
  dctrl-tools dlocate doc-base dwww info2www libfile-ncopy-perl
  libmime-types-perl libuuid-perl libyaml-tiny-perl swish++
0 upgraded, 10 newly installed, 0 to remove and 0 not upgraded.
Need to get 723 kB of archives.
After this operation, 2,221 kB of additional disk space will be used.
Do you want to continue? [Y/n] y 
Get:1 http://raspbian-us.ngc292.space/raspbian stretch/main armhf dctrl-tools armhf 2.24-2 [94.4 kB]
Get:2 http://raspbian-us.ngc292.space/raspbian stretch/main armhf dlocate all 1.07+nmu1 [23.9 kB]
Get:3 http://raspbian-us.ngc292.space/raspbian stretch/main armhf libuuid-perl armhf 0.27-1 [17.6 kB]
Get:4 http://raspbian-us.ngc292.space/raspbian stretch/main armhf libyaml-tiny-perl all 1.70-1 [32.0 kB]
Get:5 http://raspbian-us.ngc292.space/raspbian stretch/main armhf doc-base all 0.10.7 [100 kB]
Get:6 http://raspbian-us.ngc292.space/raspbian stretch/main armhf libfile-ncopy-perl all 0.36-1 [14.3 kB]
Get:7 http://raspbian-us.ngc292.space/raspbian stretch/main armhf libmime-types-perl all 2.13-1 [61.7 kB]
Get:8 http://raspbian-us.ngc292.space/raspbian stretch/main armhf dwww armhf 1.13.3 [123 kB]
Get:9 http://raspbian-us.ngc292.space/raspbian stretch/main armhf info2www all 1.2.2.9-24 [22.9 kB]
Get:10 http://raspbian-us.ngc292.space/raspbian stretch/main armhf swish++ armhf 6.1.5-4 [233 kB]
Fetched 723 kB in 4s (172 kB/s)
Preconfiguring packages ...
Selecting previously unselected package dctrl-tools.
(Reading database ... 134811 files and directories currently installed.)
Preparing to unpack .../0-dctrl-tools_2.24-2_armhf.deb ...
Unpacking dctrl-tools (2.24-2) ...
Selecting previously unselected package dlocate.
Preparing to unpack .../1-dlocate_1.07+nmu1_all.deb ...
Unpacking dlocate (1.07+nmu1) ...
Selecting previously unselected package libuuid-perl.
Preparing to unpack .../2-libuuid-perl_0.27-1_armhf.deb ...
Unpacking libuuid-perl (0.27-1) ...
Selecting previously unselected package libyaml-tiny-perl.
Preparing to unpack .../3-libyaml-tiny-perl_1.70-1_all.deb ...
Unpacking libyaml-tiny-perl (1.70-1) ...
Selecting previously unselected package doc-base.
Preparing to unpack .../4-doc-base_0.10.7_all.deb ...
Unpacking doc-base (0.10.7) ...
Selecting previously unselected package libfile-ncopy-perl.
Preparing to unpack .../5-libfile-ncopy-perl_0.36-1_all.deb ...
Unpacking libfile-ncopy-perl (0.36-1) ...
Selecting previously unselected package libmime-types-perl.
Preparing to unpack .../6-libmime-types-perl_2.13-1_all.deb ...
Unpacking libmime-types-perl (2.13-1) ...
Selecting previously unselected package dwww.
Preparing to unpack .../7-dwww_1.13.3_armhf.deb ...
Unpacking dwww (1.13.3) ...
Selecting previously unselected package info2www.
Preparing to unpack .../8-info2www_1.2.2.9-24_all.deb ...
Unpacking info2www (1.2.2.9-24) ...
Selecting previously unselected package swish++.
Preparing to unpack .../9-swish++_6.1.5-4_armhf.deb ...
Unpacking swish++ (6.1.5-4) ...
Processing triggers for mime-support (3.60) ...
Processing triggers for desktop-file-utils (0.23-1) ...
Setting up dctrl-tools (2.24-2) ...
Setting up libyaml-tiny-perl (1.70-1) ...
Setting up libmime-types-perl (2.13-1) ...
Setting up libuuid-perl (0.27-1) ...
Setting up doc-base (0.10.7) ...
Registering 31 doc-base files...
Registering documents with dwww...
Setting up info2www (1.2.2.9-24) ...
Setting up libfile-ncopy-perl (0.36-1) ...
Setting up swish++ (6.1.5-4) ...
Processing triggers for man-db (2.7.6.1-2) ...
Processing triggers for gnome-menus (3.13.3-9) ...
Setting up dlocate (1.07+nmu1) ...
Setting up dwww (1.13.3) ...

Creating config file /etc/dwww/dwww.conf with new version

Building dwww pages in the background...
apache2_invoke: Enable configuration dwww

You will notice a few things during the install. First is a list of the additional packages to be installed:

The following additional packages will be installed:
  dctrl-tools dlocate doc-base info2www libfile-ncopy-perl libmime-types-perl
  libuuid-perl libyaml-tiny-perl swish++
Suggested packages:
  debtags rarian-compat doc-debian dpkg-www libmojolicious-perl xpdf-utils
  antiword
The following NEW packages will be installed:
  dctrl-tools dlocate doc-base dwww info2www libfile-ncopy-perl
  libmime-types-perl libuuid-perl libyaml-tiny-perl swish++

Then you see the system downloading the packages.

Get:1 http://raspbian-us.ngc292.space/raspbian stretch/main armhf dctrl-tools armhf 2.24-2 [94.4 kB]
Get:2 http://raspbian-us.ngc292.space/raspbian stretch/main armhf dlocate all 1.07+nmu1 [23.9 kB]
Get:3 http://raspbian-us.ngc292.space/raspbian stretch/main armhf libuuid-perl armhf 0.27-1 [17.6 kB]
.......

Next it is unpacking and configuring the packages.

Preconfiguring packages ...
Selecting previously unselected package dctrl-tools.
(Reading database ... 134811 files and directories currently installed.)
Preparing to unpack .../0-dctrl-tools_2.24-2_armhf.deb ...
Unpacking dctrl-tools (2.24-2) ...

Finally it is setting things up and configuring the packages.

Processing triggers for mime-support (3.60) ...
Processing triggers for desktop-file-utils (0.23-1) ...
Setting up dctrl-tools (2.24-2) ...
Setting up libyaml-tiny-perl (1.70-1) ...
....
Registering 31 doc-base files...
Registering documents with dwww...
.... 
Processing triggers for man-db (2.7.6.1-2) ...
Processing triggers for gnome-menus (3.13.3-9) ...
Setting up dlocate (1.07+nmu1) ...
Setting up dwww (1.13.3) ...

Creating config file /etc/dwww/dwww.conf with new version

Building dwww pages in the background...
apache2_invoke: Enable configuration dwww

This is all part of the package management that goes on behind the scenes.

Installing programs not in the repositories

Sometimes you want to use an application that is only available on www.github.com. So lets pretend we want to install the application Adafruit Python GPIO Library

So the first step is to make sure our package repository is up to date.

sudo apt-get update

Next we are going to install some additional tools we will need. Some of these might already be installed.

sudo apt-get install build-essential python-pip python-dev python-smbus git

Next we are going to clone the repository from the github site to our local machine.

git clone https://github.com/adafruit/Adafruit_Python_GPIO.git

Next we will move into the directory containing the install program and run it.

cd Adafruit_Python_GPIO
sudo python setup.py install

What we did was install python interface to the GPIO pins on our Raspberry Pi.

Programming languages

When you want to do something on the Raspberry Pi you are going to be writing code. Now you might only need to configure a program that you downloaded. Or you might be creating something from scratch.

The good news is that the number of languages supported on the Raspberry Pi is quite extensive.

Here is a list of languages

  • Python
  • JavaScript
  • Scratch
  • Java
  • C/C++
  • PHP
  • Ruby
  • HTML
  • PERL
  • JQuery
  • Erlang

Here are a couple of web sites to help you decide what is best for you.

The most common language is Python, for which there plenty of online tutorials.

If your distribution does not contain the language you want you can install it from a repository.

Permissions

One stumbling block for many users is the idea of users, groups, and permissions. So lets see if we can take some of the mystery out of the equation.

Users

The concept of users is bigger than just who can login to the machine. Lets have a look at the file /etc/passwd

pi@raspberrypi:~ $ cat /etc/passwd 
root:x:0:0:root:/root:/bin/bash
daemon:x:1:1:daemon:/usr/sbin:/usr/sbin/nologin
bin:x:2:2:bin:/bin:/usr/sbin/nologin
sys:x:3:3:sys:/dev:/usr/sbin/nologin
sync:x:4:65534:sync:/bin:/bin/sync
games:x:5:60:games:/usr/games:/usr/sbin/nologin
man:x:6:12:man:/var/cache/man:/usr/sbin/nologin
lp:x:7:7:lp:/var/spool/lpd:/usr/sbin/nologin
mail:x:8:8:mail:/var/mail:/usr/sbin/nologin
news:x:9:9:news:/var/spool/news:/usr/sbin/nologin
uucp:x:10:10:uucp:/var/spool/uucp:/usr/sbin/nologin
proxy:x:13:13:proxy:/bin:/usr/sbin/nologin
www-data:x:33:33:www-data:/var/www:/usr/sbin/nologin
backup:x:34:34:backup:/var/backups:/usr/sbin/nologin
list:x:38:38:Mailing List Manager:/var/list:/usr/sbin/nologin
irc:x:39:39:ircd:/var/run/ircd:/usr/sbin/nologin
gnats:x:41:41:Gnats Bug-Reporting System (admin):/var/lib/gnats:/usr/sbin/nologin
nobody:x:65534:65534:nobody:/nonexistent:/usr/sbin/nologin
systemd-timesync:x:100:103:systemd Time Synchronization,,,:/run/systemd:/bin/false
systemd-network:x:101:104:systemd Network Management,,,:/run/systemd/netif:/bin/false
systemd-resolve:x:102:105:systemd Resolver,,,:/run/systemd/resolve:/bin/false
systemd-bus-proxy:x:103:106:systemd Bus Proxy,,,:/run/systemd:/bin/false
_apt:x:104:65534::/nonexistent:/bin/false
pi:x:1000:1000:,,,:/home/pi:/bin/bash
messagebus:x:105:109::/var/run/dbus:/bin/false
statd:x:106:65534::/var/lib/nfs:/bin/false
sshd:x:107:65534::/run/sshd:/usr/sbin/nologin
avahi:x:108:112:Avahi mDNS daemon,,,:/var/run/avahi-daemon:/bin/false
lightdm:x:109:113:Light Display Manager:/var/lib/lightdm:/bin/false
epmd:x:110:114::/var/run/epmd:/bin/false

Lets look at the entry for user pi.

pi:x:1000:1000:,,,:/home/pi:/bin/bash

The first field is the name of the user pi. The next field, after the colon, is an x. This is a placeholder for the password which is in a separate file, /etc/shadow. Next is the user ID, 1000, followed by the group id, 1000. The three commas are for information like a users name. The next field is the home directory of the user /home/pi. And finally is the program called when the user logs in.

Now many of these users are applications. By having an application run as it’s own user is a security measure, giving each app very limited resources to cause trouble.

You will also notice that most of these apps are attached to the program /bin/false or /usr/sbin/nologin. These are defined as “false - do nothing, unsuccessfully” and “nologin - politely refuse a login”. The false is used for applications that if called by the login app, will exit with a failure exit code. The nologin is used when that user is denied login privileges.

Group

The groups are defined in the file /etc/groups:

pi@raspberrypi:~ $ cat /etc/group
root:x:0:
daemon:x:1:
bin:x:2:
sys:x:3:
adm:x:4:pi
tty:x:5:
disk:x:6:
lp:x:7:
mail:x:8:
news:x:9:
uucp:x:10:
man:x:12:
proxy:x:13:
kmem:x:15:
dialout:x:20:pi
fax:x:21:
voice:x:22:
cdrom:x:24:pi
floppy:x:25:
tape:x:26:
sudo:x:27:pi
audio:x:29:pi
dip:x:30:
www-data:x:33:
backup:x:34:
operator:x:37:
list:x:38:
irc:x:39:
src:x:40:
gnats:x:41:
shadow:x:42:
utmp:x:43:
video:x:44:pi
sasl:x:45:
plugdev:x:46:pi
staff:x:50:
games:x:60:pi
users:x:100:pi
nogroup:x:65534:
input:x:101:pi
systemd-journal:x:102:
systemd-timesync:x:103:
systemd-network:x:104:
systemd-resolve:x:105:
systemd-bus-proxy:x:106:
crontab:x:107:
netdev:x:108:pi
pi:x:1000:
messagebus:x:109:
ssh:x:110:
bluetooth:x:111:
avahi:x:112:
spi:x:999:pi
i2c:x:998:pi
gpio:x:997:pi
lightdm:x:113:
epmd:x:114:
ssl-cert:x:115:

The group is used to assign different users to groups to allow access to specific directories and application.

Lets look at the group for netdev:

netdev:x:108:pi   

The first field is the name of the group, netdev, (for network devices). the second field is the password, /etc/gshadow, which is mostly blank. The third field is the group ID, 108. and the last field is a list of the users who belong to the group, pi.

If you are logged in as the user you can see a list of the groups you belong to using this command:

pi@raspberrypi:~ $ id -a
uid=1000(pi) gid=1000(pi) groups=1000(pi),4(adm),20(dialout),24(cdrom),27(sudo),29(audio),44(video),46(plugdev),60(games),100(users),101(input),108(netdev),997(gpio),998(i2c),999(spi)

Permissions

Now lets look at how the users, and groups are related to the files and directories.

Here is a directory long listing from a Raspberry Pi

pi@raspberrypi:~ $ ls -lia /var/lib/nfs
total 16
160518 drwxr-xr-x  4 statd nogroup 4096 Nov 13 08:13 .
160382 drwxr-xr-x 50 root  root    4096 Jan 21 17:00 ..
160562 drwxr-xr-x  2 statd nogroup 4096 Mar 20  2017 sm
160561 drwxr-xr-x  2 statd nogroup 4096 Mar 20  2017 sm.bak
165084 -rw-r--r--  1 statd root       0 Mar 20  2017 state

Now let me give you an explaination I found.

-rwxrw-r--    10    root   root 2048    Jan 13 07:11 afile.exe
?UUUGGGOOOS   00  UUUUUU GGGGGG ####    ^-- date stamp and file name are obvious ;-)
^ ^  ^  ^ ^    ^      ^      ^    ^
| |  |  | |    |      |      |    \--- File Size
| |  |  | |    |      |      \-------- Group Name (for example, Users, Administrators, etc)
| |  |  | |    |      \--------------- Owner Acct
| |  |  | |    \---------------------- Link count (what constitutes a "link" here varies)
| |  |  | \--------------------------- Alternative Access (blank means none defined, anything else varies)
| \--\--\----------------------------- Read, Write and Special access modes for [U]ser, [G]roup, and [O]thers (everyone else)
\------------------------------------- File type flag

In my listing the line begins with the file/directory inode number.

The permissions are r = read, w = write, and x = execute. The file type flag of d means a directory. The entries for . is the current directory, and for .. is the parent directory.

So each file and directory can be assigned permissions of rwx for the owner, the group, or everyone.

Text Editors

One important tool on any Linux box is a good text editor. Many of the configurations can be done with a text editor, so you need to have one that you can use easily.

On the Raspberry Pi there are a number of graphical and terminal editors available.

Graphical Editors

Leafpad

This is a easy to use graphical editor. I find it works well for simple edits.

Leafpad
Leafpad

Idle

IDLE is a Python REPL and IDE, so you can write and edit Python code in a window and run it from there.

IDLE has independent windows and syntax highlighting. It’s somewhat buggy, but it’s generally fine for basic use.

idle
idle

Terminal Editors

Nano

Nano is a simple command line editor. It displays help at the bottom of the screen to remind you of it’s basic features.

nano
nano

Vi

Vi is one of the oldest editors on any Linux/Unix system. It works only in a terminal. Some people find it difficult since it is a modal editor. It is either in command mode, or edit mode. To insert text you must switch from command to edit mode. To return to command mode you press the ESC key.

I am not showing vi because once you install vim it replaces the vi that comes with the default install.

Graphic or Terminal editors

Interestingly there are 2 editors which can be used in either graphical or commandline versions.

Vim

This is an improved version of the vi editor for terminal use. It allows things like syntax highlighting and undo that are not available in vi.

This app does not come installed on the Raspberry PI but you can add it with the command sudo apt install vim. Once you install vim on your Raspberry Pi it replaces the original VI.

vim
vim

Gvim

This is a graphical version of the Improved VI editor, known a gvim. It gives you the advantages of vim in a graphical version.

Gvim
Gvim

Emacs

This is THE heavy duty programmer’s editor. It has been around for a long time and has a large number of plug in modules. The editor uses a configuration file ~/.emacs to define how it works. In addition it has modules in /usr/share/emacs/site-lisp that add to the editor.

One interesting feature is that is will work in a terminal if called with the -nw option, like emacs -nw test.txt. Or if called without this option it will open a graphical window.

If you are interested in learning more about emacs have a look at the talk Emacs the Swiss Army knife of Linux.

emacs
emacs

Written by John F. Moore

Last Revised: Mon Jan 28 10:27:50 EST 2019

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